27 MAY 2024 · Christopher Columbus, born Cristoforo Colombo in Genoa, Italy, in 1451, is one of the most famous and controversial figures in world history. He is best known for his four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, which led to the European discovery and colonization of the Americas, a turning point in global history that would have far-reaching consequences for centuries to come. Columbus was born into a middle-class family of wool traders and weavers in the bustling port city of Genoa. His father, Domenico Colombo, was a master weaver and small-time merchant, while his mother, Susanna Fontanarossa, came from a family of weavers. Columbus had three brothers – Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo – and a sister named Bianchinetta. As a young boy, Columbus received a basic education in reading, writing, arithmetic, and drawing. He likely attended a school run by the Franciscan order, where he would have been taught Latin, the language of scholars and the Church. From an early age, Columbus showed a keen interest in geography, astronomy, and navigation, subjects that would later become central to his life and career. At the age of 14, Columbus began his maritime career by sailing on Genoese merchant ships in the Mediterranean Sea. He quickly gained experience and expertise in navigation and seamanship, and by his early twenties, he had already sailed as far north as Iceland and as far south as the Gold Coast of Africa. In 1476, Columbus moved to Portugal, which was then a center of maritime exploration and trade. He settled in Lisbon and married Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, the daughter of a prominent Portuguese nobleman and navigator. Through his marriage, Columbus gained access to his father-in-law's charts, journals, and maritime connections, which would later prove invaluable in his own voyages of discovery. In the late 15th century, European merchants and explorers were eagerly seeking new routes to the spice-rich lands of Asia, which were then dominated by Muslim traders. The traditional overland routes, such as the Silk Road, had become increasingly dangerous and expensive due to political instability and the spread of Islam. Meanwhile, the Portuguese were exploring a southern route around Africa, hoping to reach India and the East Indies by sea. Columbus, however, had a different idea. He believed that the shortest and most direct route to Asia was to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean. This idea was based on a number of misconceptions and errors in his calculations. Columbus believed that the Earth was much smaller than it actually is, and that the distance between Europe and Asia was much shorter than it really is. He also believed that there was a large undiscovered landmass between Europe and Asia, which he thought might be the lost continent of Atlantis or the biblical land of Ophir. Despite these errors, Columbus was convinced that his plan was feasible and could bring immense wealth and glory to whoever sponsored his voyage. He spent years trying to persuade various European monarchs to support his plan, including the kings of Portugal, England, and France. However, he was repeatedly rejected and ridiculed for his ideas, which were seen as impractical and even heretical by many of his contemporaries. Finally, in 1492, Columbus was able to secure the support of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the rulers of the newly unified Spain. The Spanish monarchs were eager to find new sources of wealth and to spread Christianity to the far corners of the world. They agreed to sponsor Columbus's voyage and granted him the titles of "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" and "Viceroy and Governor of the Indies" in exchange for a share of the profits from any lands he discovered. On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from the Spanish port of Palos with three small ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María. His crew consisted of about 90 men, including sailors, carpenters, cooks, and a few convicted criminals who had been offered amnesty in exchange for their service. The voyage was long and perilous, with the ships battling rough seas, contrary winds, and the constant threat of mutiny from the crew. Columbus used a combination of dead reckoning, celestial navigation, and his own intuition to chart his course across the uncharted waters of the Atlantic. After sailing for more than two months without sight of land, the crew began to grow restless and threatened to turn back. Columbus, however, remained determined and convinced them to continue on. Finally, on October 12, 1492, the expedition sighted land – a small island in the Bahamas that Columbus named San Salvador (meaning "Holy Savior" in Spanish). Columbus and his men went ashore and were greeted by the native Taíno people, whom Columbus called "Indians" because he believed he had reached the East Indies. The Taíno were initially friendly and welcoming to the Europeans, offering them food, water, and gifts. Columbus, however, saw them as potential subjects for conversion to Christianity and sources of gold and other riches. Over the next few weeks, Columbus explored the islands of the Bahamas and the northern coast of Cuba, which he believed to be part of the Asian mainland. He also discovered the island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), where he established the first European settlement in the Americas, called La Navidad. In January 1493, Columbus set sail for Spain, bringing with him a small amount of gold, some exotic plants and animals, and a few Taíno captives to present to the Spanish monarchs. He arrived in Palos on March 15, 1493, and was hailed as a hero and a great discoverer. News of Columbus's discovery spread quickly throughout Europe, and many people were eager to join him on his next voyage. In September 1493, Columbus set out from Cádiz, Spain with a massive fleet of 17 ships and over 1,200 men, including soldiers, priests, farmers, and artisans. The primary goal of the second voyage was to establish permanent colonies on the islands of the Caribbean and to begin the process of converting the native peoples to Christianity. Columbus also hoped to find more gold and other valuable resources to bring back to Spain. The fleet first stopped at the Canary Islands to resupply and then sailed across the Atlantic, arriving in the Caribbean in November 1493. Columbus discovered several new islands, including Dominica, Guadeloupe, and Puerto Rico, before reaching Hispaniola. When Columbus arrived at La Navidad, he found the settlement destroyed and all 39 of the men he had left behind dead, probably killed by the Taíno in retaliation for their mistreatment by the Europeans. Undeterred, Columbus established a new settlement on the northern coast of Hispaniola, called La Isabela, and began to explore the island's interior in search of gold. However, Columbus's rule over the new colony quickly became tyrannical and brutal. He imposed harsh labor demands on the Taíno, forcing them to work in gold mines and on plantations. Many of the Taíno died from overwork, disease, and violence at the hands of the Europeans. Columbus also faced growing discontent and rebellion among his own men, who were frustrated by the lack of gold and the difficult living conditions in the colony. In 1495, Columbus returned to Spain to defend his actions and secure more support for his colonial ventures. He brought back a small amount of gold and other exotic goods, as well as hundreds of Taíno slaves, many of whom died on the journey. In May 1498, Columbus set out on his third voyage with six ships and about 300 men. This time, he took a more southerly route across the Atlantic, hoping to find a passage to the Indian Ocean. After stopping at the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands, Columbus sailed southwest and discovered the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, which he initially believed to be an unknown continent. He explored the Gulf of Paria and the Orinoco River delta, but was forced to cut his exploration short due to a growing mutiny among his crew.